
Were the             Nephilim sons of God?
               Fallen             Angels?  Giants of Genesis 6:4?
                                                                                               - A common                               belief which we share is that the "sons of
                                              
-  God"                                               who                               did marry                               the "daughters                               of men" were fallen angels.
 
                                     Why did God                                      send the judgment of the Flood in the days                                      of Noah? The strange events recorded in                                      Genesis 6 were understood by the ancient                                      rabbinical sources, as well as the Septuagint                                      translators, as referring to fallen angels                                      procreating weird hybrid offspring with                                      human women-known as the           Nephilim. This                                      was far more than simply a historical issue,                                      the unique events leading to the Flood are                                      a prerequisite to understanding the prophetic                                      implications of our Lord's predictions regarding                                      His Second Coming.  This is believed                                      to have happened both before the Flood and                                      after the flood.  In Israel at the                                      time of David, and before this when the                                      Hebrews were scouting the land - there were                                      tribes of these Nephilim - Goliath the giant                                      of Gath is one example.  Early                                      Church fathers also understood this to be                                      the case.  It appears that these fallen                                      angels were active all over the world.   These                                      bizarre giants living on the earth are also                                      echoed in the legends and myths of nearly                                      every ancient culture.  The ancient                                      Greeks, the Egyptians, the Hindus, the South                                      Sea Islanders, the American Indians, and                                      most all the others have these legends.                                     
The Hebrew                                      word Nephelim (plural of nephel) (Nephilim)                                      literally means "rejects". The Hebrew plural for Nephites would be "Nephi'im".
- Satan probably put                               this plan to interrupt Abraham's "seed into motion, as                               soon as it was made known that the Seed of the  Woman                               (Christ) was to come through ABRAHAM.
                   
                                                                   - Bible Probe Note:                               Our use of the Word "irruption"                               in this article below means:                               act of rushing; act of breaking in; intrusion, raid;                               sudden increase.
 
- Genesis                                           6:4 (Original KJV):
 - There                                           were giants in the earth in those                                           days; and also after that,
 - when                                           the sons of God came in unto the                                           daughters of men, and
 - they                                           bare children to them, the same became                                           mighty men which
 - were                                           of old, men of renown.
                               
                                      - Bible                                           Probe Note: Note the words; "and                                           also after that". This
 - probably                                           tells of two "irruptions" by                                           Satan's seed.  One before Noah's
 -  time and                                           another after the flood.                  They were called “The                Watchers” in The Book                of Enoch.
 
                                     Their descendents, called                         Nephilim (translated "giants"), were monsters                         of iniquity;  and being superhuman in size and                                     in their wicked character,                         had to be                                     destroyed.  Was this the one and only object of                         the Flood?
-                                            Genesis 6:12 (Original KJV):
 - And                                           God looked upon the earth, and,                                           behold, it was corrupt;
 - for                                           all flesh had corrupted his way upon                                           the earth.
 
-                                Only Noah and his family had preserved                         their pedigree pure from Adam (Genesis 6:9). All the                         rest had become "corrupt" (shachath). The only remedy was to destroy it                         
 - defacto (Latin for                               "in fact"), as it had become defacto                               destroyed.
                          
                         This                         irruption of fallen angels before Noah's day was                         probably Satan's first attempt to                         prevent the coming of the "Seed of the woman" foretold in                         Genesis 3:15. If this could be accomplished, God's Word                         would have failed, and Satan's own doom would be averted.
- Genesis                                           3:15 (Original KJV):
 - And I                                           will put enmity between thee and the                                           woman, and between
 - thy                                           seed and                                           her seed; it shall bruise thy head,                                           and thou shalt
 - bruise                                           his heel.  also                                           see Isaiah 7:14
 
- Satan's                                           plan was to occupy Canaan with                                           "his own                                           seed" in advance of Abraham's                                           seed. 
 
                                                                                                                                               As soon                         as it was made known that the Seed of the woman was to                         come through ABRAHAM, there must have been another                         irruption, as recorded in Genesis 6:4 (see above), "and also                         after that" (that is to say, after the days of                         Noah, more than 500 years after the first irruption). The                         aim of the enemy was to occupy Canaan in advance of                         Abraham, and so to contest its occupation by his seed. For,                         when Abraham entered Canaan, we read (Genesis 12:6)                         "the Canaanite was then (that is to say, already)                         in the land."
                   
                         - Also in Genesis we                               see two more attempts by Satan to interfere with                               Abraham's
 - seed before the birth                               of Isaac, as told in both Genesis 12:10-20 and in                               Genesis 20:1-18.
 
In           the late 1950’s, during road construction in           the Euphrates Valley of south-east Turkey,           many tombs containing the remains of giants           were uncovered. At the sites the leg bones           were measured to be 120 cms (47.24 inches).           Joe Taylor, Director of Mt. Blanco Fossil           Museum, was commissioned to sculpt the human           femur. This             Antediluvian                      giant stood some 14-16 ft tall           (see below).                     Genesis 6:4 claims: "There were giants in           the earth in those days;" Deuteronomy 3:11           states that the bed of Og, king of Bashan,           was 9 cubits by 4 cubits (approximately 14           ft long by 6 ft wide).
            Antediluvian             Giants' bone below
                                                     
Other           human Fossil           finds
 
                         A 19'6" human skeleton found in 1577 A.D.           under an overturned oak tree in the Canton           of Lucerne.
 
     23-foot tall skeleton found in 1456 A.D.           beside a river in Valence, France.
 
     A 25' 6 " skeleton found in 1613 A.D. near           the castle of Chaumont in France. This was           claimed to be a nearly complete find.
          A 9' 8" skeleton was           excavated from a mound near Brewersville,           Indiana (Indianapolis News, Nov 10, 1975).                    
                    In 1833           soldiers digging at a pit for a powder           magazine in Lompock Rancho, California,           discovered a male skeleton 12 feet tall. The           skeleton was surrounded by carved shells,           stone axes,           and blocks of porphyry           covered with unintelligible symbols.           The skeleton had double rows of upper and           lower teeth.            These bones substantiated           legends by the local Piute Indians regarding           giants which they called Si-Te-Cahs.
                    In           Clearwater Minnesota, the skeletons of seven           giants were found in mounds. These had           receding foreheads and complete double           dentition.
             
                                                  "A miner fell through a              hole in a mine in Italy and              found this 11' 6" skeleton."              believed to been found in 1856.
A            mound near Toledo, Ohio, held 20            skeletons, seated and facing east with            jaws and teeth "twice as large as those            of present day people," and besides each            was a large bowl with "curiously wrought            hieroglyphic figures." (Chicago Record,            Oct. 24, 1895; cited by Ron G. Dobbins,            NEARA Journal, v13, fall 1978).           
                              Almost beyond comprehension or believability           was the find of the two separate 36-foot           human remains uncovered by Carthaginians           somewhere between 200-600 B.C.
 
     Caius Julius Verus           Maximinus, also known as Maximinus Thrax           (235-238 A.D.) was a Roman soldier-emperor           who spent his reign on campaign. Maximinus           was born in Thrace to a Gothic father an Alanic mother in about 173 A.D..  He           was reportedly 8' feet, six inches (2.59m)           tall, and of tremendous strength.
          
In an ancient text of the          Jews, we read an astonishing description of some          of these gigantic Amorites whom the Israelites          conquered. In Buber's Tanhuma,          Devarim 7, the text tells us of a Rabbi Johnanan          ben Zakkai's encounter with the Roman Emperor          Hadrian. This event occurred in about A.D. 135,          soon after the Roman victory in the Bar Kochba          war, when the Jews rebelled against the Romans.          The text reads:
"The wicked emperor Hadrian, who           conquered Jerusalem, boasted, 'I have           conquered Jerusalem with great power.' Rabbi           Johanan ben Zakkai said to him, 'Do not           boast. Had it not been the will of Heaven,           you would not have conquered it.' Rabbi           Johanan then took Hadrian into a cave and           showed him the bodies of Amorites who were           buried there. One of them measured eighteen           cubits [approximately 30 feet] in height. He           said, 'When we were deserving, such men were           defeated by us, but now, because of our           sins, you have defeated us'" (quoted in 
          Judaism, edited by Arthur           Hertzberg, p.155-156, George Braziller, New           York: 1962).
"Sons of God             were fallen angels and not aliens"
                                                                      Some have claimed that the                         Nephilim, or the "sons of God," both mentioned                         in Genesis 6:2-4, were aliens. This is a wild extension                         of a common view that the "sons of God" who                         married the "daughters of men" were fallen                         angels, and that the Nephilim were products of those                         "marriages."                         "Sons of God"                         is clearly used of angels in Job 38:7 Orig KJV: "When                         the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God                         shouted for joy?". The Septuagint (LXX)                         here translates "sons of God" as "angels                         of God." This need not mean that evil angels, or                         demons, actually cohabited with women.  Jesus made it                         clear that angels do not engage in sexual activities, at                         least not angels in heaven. Matthew 22:30 Orig KJV:                         "For in the resurrection they neither marry, nor                         are given in marriage, but are as the angels of God in                         heaven."  Nevertheless, evil angels on earth could have used the                         bodies of ungodly men, by demonic possession, to achieve                         their evil purpose of producing an evil generation of                         people (Genesis 6:12).[2]                         
There are other                         reasonable suggestions as to the identity of the                         "sons of God" and the Nephilim. Interestingly,                         the word Nephilim is only used here and in Numbers                         13:33, where it clearly refers to the descendants of                         Anak, who were big people, but still people.                         Furthermore, "sons of God" is not used                         exclusively of angels -- the children of Israel are                         called "the sons of the living God" in Hosea                         1:10 (see also Psalm 73:15; 80:17).
Numbers 13:                                     32-33 Original KJV:                                     
- 32 And                                           they brought up an evil report of the                                           land which they had            searched                                           unto the children of Israel,                                           saying, The land, through which                                           we have gone to search it, is a                                           land that eateth up the inhabitants                                           thereof; and all the people                                           that we saw in it are men            of                                           great stature.
 
- 33 And                                           there we saw the giants, the sons of                                           Anak, which come            of the                                           giants: and we were in our own                                           sight as grasshoppers, and so                                           we  were in their sight.
 
                                  The Anakim: This           was another name for the Watchers. It means           “the descendants of Anak”, or Enoch, Cain’s           son. Though it was said that a flood had           been sent to destroy them, there were still           entire cities of Anakim in Canaan as late as           the time of Moses. And Jewish chronicler           Josephus states that even in his own day it           was not uncommon for people to dig up           gigantic skeletal remains.
A champion named                         Goliath, who was from Gath, came out of the Philistine                         camp ... Then the Philistine said, "This day I defy                         the ranks of Israel! Give me a man and let us fight each                         other."                                  
Reading further,                                  both in 2 Samuel 21:16-22 and I Chronicles                                  20:4-8, we discover that Goliath had four                                  relatives, also giants:                                   
1) Ishbi-Benob,                                  whose bronze spearhead weighed three hundred                                  shekels (more than seven pounds) and who said                                  he would kill David; 
                                  2) Saph                                  (or Sippai), another descendant of Rapha (the                                  giant); 
                                  3) Lahmi                                  (the brother of Goliath), whose spear shaft                                  resembled a weaver's rod; and 
                                        
4) a huge man (unnamed in                      the text) with six fingers on each hand and six toes on                      each foot.
                      Goliath and these four were                      all descendants of Rapha in Gath, "and they fell at                      the hands of David and his men" (2 Samuel 21:22 and I                      Chronicles 20:8).                      
David apparently knew in                      facing Goliath that these other four might also have to be                      reckoned with. So David prepared himself to take down all                      five giants, one stone per giant, if need be. The Bible                      tells us that the other four did fight against David and                      his army in later battles, and all four were defeated.
                      David's stone was a bullet                      of faith, launched from his sling at probably 100 to 120                      mph, and with sufficient momentum to break through                      Goliath's skull bones. The boastful giant never knew what                      hit him. The text indicates that David ran toward Goliath                      as he launched his shot, thus adding to its momentum. We                      can assume from David's success in killing both bear and                      lion that he was a fast runner (Goliath could never have                      caught him in open field running) and an accurate shot,                      probably able to put a stone into a 3- or 4-inch circle                      consistently from a distance of 20 or 30 feet (an accuracy                      comparable to that of today's pro baseball pitchers).
                      
                 Rulers in ancient Egypt                         and Mesopotamia often proclaimed themselves as                         "sons of God" to enhance their power and                         prestige. So, another view with much support is that the                         "sons of God" were power-hungry rulers and                         despots, who, in their hunger for power and influence,                         took many wives in polygamy. They, and their offspring,                         through tyranny, became "mighty men." (Nimrod                         was described as a "mighty one" in Genesis                         10:8.)                      
                         So, there is no need to                         resort to fanciful suggestions involving aliens to                         understand this passage of Scripture.
                                               Good                         Angels do not marry
                                                                                                                      A contradictory                                     yet enlightening statement about angel                                     marriages was made by Jesus which was                                     reported in Matthew 22:30; "For                                     in the resurrection they neither marry, nor                                     are given in marriage, but are as the angels                                     of God in heaven."  Here we                                     read a statement from Jesus saying that                                     angels do not get married.  A possible                                     explanation for this is that the "sons                                     of God"  were the descendants of                                     Seth, and "the daughters of men"                                     were of the godless Cainites.                                      Remember, God later spoke of the people of                                     Israel as His ‘firstborn son" (Exodus                                     4:22), and Moses called the people of Israel                                     "children of the Lord your God"                                     (Deuteronomy 14:1).                                     
                                Therefore, when they took wives it was an                                     unholy alliance between Sethites (God's                                     people) and Cainites (idol worshipers).                                     Also, the word "wives" seems to                                     indicate more that one and therefore a                                     suggests taking more than one wife                                     (polygamy).
How Big were the Giants?                               -                                              (probably around                                  *9.5-14 feet)
 
                                                                                                                                                                          -                                               
(Ancient                                              Hebrew cubit remains unknown)                                                                                                                                          - *9                                                 cubits using Egyptian Royal                                                 cubit (1.7 ft) =15.3 ft
                                               -  (subtracted                                                 1 ft for bed's comfort)
                                                                                                                                                                          |                                   
                               
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Deuteronomy                                        3:11 Original KJV:                                        - For                                              only Og king of Bashan remained of                                              the remnant
 - of                                              giants; behold, his bedstead was a                                              bedstead of 
 - iron;                                              is it not in Rabbath of the                                              children of Ammon?
 - nine                                              cubits was the length thereof, and                                              four cubits 
 - the                                              breadth of it, after the cubit of a                                              man,
 
  |     | 
Giants
                         (1.) Hebrew Nephilim,                         meaning "violent" or "causing to                         fall" (Gen. 6:4). These were the violent tyrants of                         those days, those who fell upon others. The word may                         also be derived from a root signifying                         "wonder," and hence "monsters" or                         "prodigies." In Num. 13:33 this name is given                         to a Canaanitish tribe, a race of large stature,                         "the sons of Anak." The Revised Version, in                         these passages, simply transliterates the original, and                         reads "Nephilim."
                         (2.) Hebrew rephaim, a                         race of giants (Deut. 3:11) who lived on the east of                         Jordan, from whom Og was descended. They were probably                         the original inhabitants of the land before the                         immigration of the Canaanites. They were conquered by                         Chedorlaomer (Gen. 14:5), and their territories were                         promised as a possession to Abraham (15:20). The Anakim,                         Zuzim, and Emim were branches of this stock.
                         In Job 26:5 (R.V.,                         "they that are deceased;" marg., "the                         shades," the "Rephaim") and Isa. 14:9                         this Hebrew word is rendered (A.V.) "dead." It                         means here "the shades," the departed spirits                         in Sheol. In Sam. 21:16, 18, 20, 33, "the                         giant" is (A.V.) the rendering of the singular form                         ha raphah, which may possibly be the name of the                         father of the four giants referred to here, or of the                         founder of the Rephaim. The Vulgate here reads "Arapha,"                         whence Milton (in Samson Agonistes) has borrowed the                         name "Harapha." (See also 1 Chron. 20:5, 6, 8;                         Deut. 2:11, 20; 3:13; Josh. 15:8, etc., where the word                         is similarly rendered "giant.") It is rendered                         "dead" in (A.V.) Ps. 88:10; Prov. 2:18; 9:18;                         21:16: in all these places the Revised Version marg. has                         "the shades." (See also Isa. 26:14.)
                         (3.) Hebrew 'Anakim                         (Deut. 2:10, 11, 21; Josh. 11:21, 22; 14:12, 15; called                         "sons of Anak," Num. 13:33; "children of                         Anak," 13:22; Josh. 15:14), a nomad race of giants                         descended from Arba (Josh. 14:15), the father of Anak,                         that dwelt in the south of Palestine near Hebron (Gen.                         23:2; Josh. 15:13). They were a Cushite tribe of the                         same race as the Philistines and the Egyptian shepherd                         kings. David on several occasions encountered them (2                         Sam. 21:15-22). From this race sprung Goliath (1 Sam.                         17:4).
                         (4.) Hebrew 'emin, a                         warlike tribe of the ancient Canaanites. They were                         "great, and many, and tall, as the Anakims"                         (Gen. 14:5; Deut. 2:10, 11).
                         (5.) Hebrew Zamzummim                         (q.v.), Deut. 2:20 so called by the Amorites.
                         (6.) Heb. gibbor (Job                         16:14), a mighty one, i.e., a champion or hero. In its                         plural form (gibborim) it is rendered "mighty                         men" (2 Sam. 23:8-39; 1 Kings 1:8; 1 Chr. 11:9-47;                         29:24.) The band of six hundred whom David gathered                         around him when he was a fugitive were so designated.                         They were divided into three divisions of two hundred                         each, and thirty divisions of twenty each. The captains                         of the thirty divisions were called "the                         thirty," the captains of the two hundred "the                         three," and the captain over the whole was called                         "chief among the captains" (2 Sam. 23:8). The                         sons born of the marriages mentioned in Gen. 6:4 are                         also called by this Hebrew name
Genesis 6: 1-8 Original KJV:
             1 And it came to pass,             when men began to multiply on the face of the earth, and daughters             were born unto them,             
             2 That the sons of             God saw the daughters of men that they were fair; and they took them             wives of all which they chose.             
3 And the LORD said,             My Spirit shall not always strive with man, for that he also is             flesh: yet his days shall be an hundred and twenty years.             
             4 There were giants  in the earth in those             days; and also after that, when the sons of God came in unto the             daughters of men, and they bare children to them, the same became             mighty men which were of old, men of renown.             
5 And God saw that the             wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every imagination             of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually.             
6 And it repented the             LORD that he had made man on the earth, and it grieved him at his             heart.             
7 And the LORD said,             I will destroy man whom I have created from the face of the earth;             both man, and beast, and the creeping thing, and the fowls of the             air; for it repenteth me that I have made them.             
8 But   Noah found             grace in the eyes of the LORD.
Another                      non-canonical tradition says that God's Angels swarmed down                      and killed the remaining Nephilim...
                     God seeing his creation on the brink of destruction acted to save man  from this treachery, and he set out to wipe corrupt man (and beast) from the  face of the earth. God did not do this so as to punish man but to save him from  an evil he had no way of understanding. God saved Noah and his family and man  began anew.  As did the evil.
But it was the unauthorized act of revelation that outraged the archangels,  and it was that act which God punished. "I shall restore the Earth, so that not  all the sons of men shall be destroyed through the mystery which the Watchers  made known." Divinely commanded, the obedient Watchers swept down and defeated  their brothers, whose punishment was to watch the death of their children before  being themselves imprisoned in the mountains and deserts of the Earth until  Judgment Day, when they will be cast into the lake of eternal fire. (Azazel is  the only Watcher whose burial place is believed to be known: under a heap of  stones at the foot of the cliff of Haradan, in what is now the Sinai, where,  regarded as a demon, he received every year the scapegoat driven into the desert  with its burden of Israel's sins. --Alternately, he is sometimes said to have  hurled himself into the sky and become the constellation Orion.) God sends the  prophet Enoch to scold them in their imprisonment, saying that as spiritual  beings they were never intended to have wives as mortal men do (of course, their  creator could presumably have seen to it that they felt no longing for sex or  love, but he apparently neglected to do so) and even scorning the knowledge they  shared with humanity - "You were in heaven, but its secret had not been revealed  to you and a worthless mystery you knew." - although the Four Archangels'  concern surely contradicts this mocking remark. Other Apocryphal books say that  even now they are held and tortured in the terrible Fifth Heaven, set aside for  just this purpose. (I Enoch XIII describes the Watchers/Grigori as  stricken mute with guilt and terror after Enoch's reproof, and indeed in II  Enoch the Grigori imprisoned in the Fifth Heaven are voiceless giants.) The  world, meanwhile, is swept clean in a great earthquake and flood, destroying the  Nephilim's lands, to which many writers  trace the worldwide legends of a catastrophic inundation.
 But the Watchers' teaching continued to influence humankind in the ages after  the Deluge, even though now condemned and studied in secret. In Jubilees  VIII:1-5, Kainam, Noah's grandson, "came upon a writing which men of old had  carved on a rock...it contained the teaching of the Watchers, in accordance with  which they used to observe the omens of the sun and moon and all the signs of  heaven. And he wrote it down and said nothing about it..." fearing punishment  from Noah, who blamed the Watchers for the Flood and constantly warned his clan  against any dealings with them or their descent. (Must have been one blessed  huge rock, unless the Watchers' skills included micro-engraving.) This is  especially notable because Kainam is the brother of Chesed, father of Ur, who is  said in the Apocrypha to have founded the famous Chaldean city of that name.  "And [they] grew up and lived in Ur of the Chaldees," says Jubilees  (XI:7-8) of Serug and Nahor, Kainam's descendants, "and worshipped  idols...and [Nahor's] father instructed him in the learning of the Chaldees, how  to divine and foretell the future from the signs of heaven." It's most tempting  to conclude that Kainam's grandchildren through generations inherited and  studied the written record he had made from the stone; that the legendary wisdom  of the Chaldeans, which amazes history, had descended to them from the Watchers  themselves
                     The Nephilim - and, some say, their  children, the Elioud/Eljo - were physically exterminated by the avenging angel  horde. But, though their half-mortal bodies could be slain, their half-angel  souls could not, nor could they be held in chains. They remain on the earth,  wandering at will, and though chaotic and destructive will not be punished for  their deeds until the Final Judgment "in which the great age will be brought to  an end". Occult tradition holds that now and then a Nephilim spirit will incarnate in human form  (the souls of those who quit the body violently, it's said, are most pure...).  
                     The Apocrypha claim the disembodied Nephilim are the origin of demons, and accuse  them of many crimes. Jubilees places the blame for the Flood squarely  upon the fornication of the Watchers and the iniquity and bloodshed of the Nephilim. "And now the giants who were born  from souls and flesh will be called evil spirits upon the earth," charges I  Enoch XV-XVI, "From the day of...the slaughter and destruction of the giant  Nephilim, the mighty ones of the earth,  the great famous ones, the spirits that have gone out from their souls as from  the flesh will destroy without judgment." Even the mortal women who are their  mothers are cursed to become sirens and demonesses. In Jubilees X:1-6,  Noah's sons beg him to protect their children from "unclean demons" who are  "leading astray, blinding and killing" them; Noah, petitioning God to "let not  wicked spirits rule over [my grandchildren] and destroy them", adds, "Thou  knowest what thy Watchers, the fathers of these spirits, did in my day..."  making it clear that the demonic spirits and the Nephilim are considered one and the same.  (One wonders if Kainam was one of these grandchildren being "led astray" by a  "demonic" Nephilim familiar. Maybe it  was helping him interpret the stone...)
                                  
Archeology NewsNovember 2005    Archaeologists digging at the purported biblical home of Goliath     have unearthed a shard of pottery bearing an inscription of the     Philistine's name, a find they claim lends historical credence to     the Bible's tale of David's battle with Goliath.
While the discovery is not definitive evidence of Goliath's     existence, it does support the Bible's depiction of life at the time     the battle was supposed to have occurred, said Dr. Aren Maeir, a     professor at Bar-Ilan University and director of the excavation.
"What this means is that at the time there were people there named     Goliath," he said. "It shows us that David and Goliath's story     reflects the cultural reality of the time."
Some scholars assert the story of David slaying the giant Goliath is     a myth written down hundreds of years later. Maeir said finding the     scraps lends historical credence to the biblical story.
The shard dates back to around 950 B.C., within 70 years of when     biblical chronology asserts David squared off against Goliath,     making it the oldest Philistine inscription ever found, the     archaeologists said.
Scientists made the discovery at Tel es-Safi, a dig site in southern     Israel thought to be to be the location of the Philistine city of     Gath.
Maeir doubts an archaeological find can ever prove Goliath's     existence, but said the shard was exciting nonetheless because of     its depiction of life during the time period. 
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